Dark Eagles: A History of the Top Secret U.S. Aircraft Read online

  By November 1955, there were four or five U-2s in the test program at Groom Lake. Robert Sicker and Robert Schumacher were added to the flight test staff. The initial flight tests were of airframe and engine, followed later by tests of subsystems, such as the autopilot. Finally, with the arrival of the cameras, these would be tested on simulated operational missions.[49] The initial test flights did not venture more than two hundred miles from the Ranch. From 70,000 feet, the U-2 could glide back to Groom Lake. As confidence in the aircraft grew, the Lockheed pilots began flying triangular patterns up to one thousand miles away from the Ranch. These flights could last up to nine and a half hours.

  If the triumphs of Groom Lake were secret, so too were its tragedies. At 7:00 A.M. on Wednesday, November 17, 1955, the daily air force flight to Groom Lake took off from Burbank. Aboard the C-54 transport were ten Lockheed and CIA personnel and five crewmen. There would have been more passengers, but a party at the Flight Test Division had left some people with hangovers. The weather was poor and the C-54 hit the peak of Mount Charleston near Las Vegas, killing all fifteen. It took three days to reach the wreckage, which was only thirty feet from the eleven-thousand-foot summit. An air force colonel accompanied the rescue party to recover briefcases and classified documents from the bodies.

  The air force issued a statement saying they were civilian technicians and consultants. It was assumed by the press that they had been scientists connected with the AEC's nuclear tests. They would not be the last to meet secret deaths. In the wake of the tragedy, Johnson insisted Lockheed take over the daily flights to the Ranch. A company-owned C-47 was used.

  THE END OF THE X-16

  During this time, Bell had continued work on the X-16. In early October 1955 (two months after the first U-2 test flight), Bell signed a contract with the air force for twenty-two aircraft. Then, a few hours later, Bell was notified that the project had been terminated. It had been realized that the U-2, even with the engine problems, was a vastly superior aircraft. Loss of the X-16 was a major blow to Bell; it was one of the few contracts the company had.[50] The loss meant the end of Bell's involvement with fixed-wing aircraft. Ironically, the X-16 would remain secret for another decade — it was not until 1976 that photos of the aircraft would be released.

  Following the cancellation of the X-16, Lockheed received contracts for a total of fifty U-2s. Lockheed gave back some $2 million on the initial contract. Later, an additional five U-2s would be assembled from spare parts.[51]

  CIA PILOT RECRUITMENT

  In late 1955 and early 1956, recruitment of the CIA U-2 pilots began.

  They were all F-84 pilots from two Strategic Air Command (SAC) bases, Turner Air Force Base, Georgia, and Bergstrom Air Force Base, Texas. The Strategic Fighter Wings at these bases were being phased out. The "disappearance" of a few pilots would not be noticed.[52] The pilots approached were all reserve officers with indefinite service tours, Top Secret clearances, exceptional pilot ratings, and more than the required flight time in single-seat, single-engine aircraft.

  The pilots initially were told only that a flying job was available. If they were interested, an interview would be arranged. These interviews were held at night, at nearby motels. The pilots were not told much more — simply that they had been picked to be part of a group that would carry out a special mission. It would be risky, but they would be doing something important for the United States. They would be well paid but would have to be overseas for eighteen months without their families. If they were interested, they should call the motel the next day and arrange another interview.

  Several pilots refused because of the separation from their families. The remainder were highly curious. There was wild speculation on what the job offer was really about. Marty Knutson thought they were going to be astronauts.[53] Francis Gary Powers thought it sounded like the Flying Tigers.[54]

  It was not until the third interview that the tantalizing mysteries were made clear. The pilots were told they would be working for the CIA and that they would be flying a new airplane that could go higher than any other. Their pay, during training, would […] per month; overseas it would be raised to $2,500 per month. This was almost as much as an airline captain's salary. Their time with the CIA would count toward air force retirement and rank. Part of their job would be to fly along the Soviet border to record radio and radar signals. Their main job, they were stunned to learn, would be to overfly the Soviet Union. They were given a day to think it over.

  Those pilots who agreed underwent several months of briefings, lie-detector tests, and medical checks at the Lovelace Clinic in Albuquerque, New Mexico. The examination lasted a week and involved tests developed specifically for the prospective U-2 pilots. (They were later used for the Mercury astronauts.) One series tested for claustrophobia — a necessity given the cramped cockpit and restrictive partial-pressure suit. A handful of pilots washed out. The rest, about twenty-five in all, resigned from the air force (a process called "sheep dipping") and signed eighteen-month contracts with the CIA. They were then sent to the Ranch.

  MEANWHILE, BACK AT THE RANCH…

  The training program at the Ranch was a joint CIA-air force operation.

  The group was commanded by Col. Bill Yancey and included four experienced instructor pilots. Because there were no two-seat U-2s at this time (or even a ground simulator), the instructor pilots were limited to conducting the ground school.[55] The CIA pilots underwent training in three groups, starting in early 1956 and continuing through the year. While at the Ranch, the pilots used cover names. Francis Gary Powers became "Francis G. Palmer" (same initials and similar last name).[56] The pilots' gray green flight suits had no name tags nor squadron patches. They did wear film badges that measured radiation exposure, because of the nearby nuclear test site.[57]

  The pilots first underwent ground school, which included training in use of the pressure suit. Then flight training began. The first two flights were landing practice in a T-33. The technique used to land the U-2 was directly counter to that used in conventional aircraft.

  Once this was completed, the pilots could begin flying the U-2. The initial flights would again be landing training. This was followed by high-altitude flights. Then the pilots would begin flying long-range simulated missions, lasting up to eight hours.[58] These training flights went from Groom Lake to the Allegheny Mountains and back — a flight of some 4,000 miles.[59] In all, some sixteen flights were made. As the training progressed, each pilot was evaluated.[60]

  The U-2 flight training was much more extensive than that for other air force planes. The U-2 was a very demanding aircraft. The takeoff roll was only a few hundred feet. The U-2 would then go into a spectacular climb at better than a 45-degree angle. The first few times the pilots thought the U-2 would continue right over on its back. The U-2 would continue up to 60,000 feet before leveling off. Then, as fuel was used, the plane slowly climbed. The peak altitude was about 75,000 feet. This depended on both the fuel and equipment load, and on the air temperature. Between 55,000 and 60,000 feet, the air temperature could vary widely. This could cause the aircraft to climb more rapidly or even force it to descend.

  Above 68,000 feet, the difference between the U-2's stall speed and its maximum speed was only 10 knots. This was called the "coffin corner." The aircraft could easily exceed these limits due to control inputs or pilot inat-tention. The result would be the plane tearing itself apart within seconds.

  The pilot would have to maintain this balancing act for hours on end, plus navigate, operate the camera, and monitor fuel consumption. Therefore the autopilot was critical in controlling the plane.

  Coming down from this lofty perch was difficult. The pilot could not simply point the nose down — the aircraft would overspeed and break up.

  Rather, the throttle was eased back to idle, then the landing gear and speed brakes were deployed. Even so, the descent was very slow — a striking contrast to the rocketlike climb. As the U-2 descended, the margin between
the stall and maximum speed would widen.[61]

  As the aircraft approached for the landing, fuel had to be transferred to balance the wings. If one wing became too heavy, the plane could go into an uncontrollable spin. Unlike at high altitudes, where the U-2 had to be flown with a light touch, at lower altitudes, the pilot had to manhandle the plane.

  Even the touchdown was critical. The pilot had to hold the long wings level, a difficult task in a crosswind. If the plane was stalled too high, it would hit the runway, bounce into the air, stall, and crash before the engine could come to full power.

  The U-2 was a plane that required the pilot's complete attention every second. There was no margin for error. The flights were so exhausting that a pilot would not be allowed to fly again for two days.[62]

  But, as Powers later noted, the rewards of a U-2 flight were far greater.

  From altitude, above Arizona, the pilot could see from the Monterey Peninsula to midway down Baja California. Above was the blue black of space.

  Powers wrote, "Being so high gave you a unique satisfaction. Not a feeling of superiority or omnipotence, but a special aloneness." He added, "There was only one thing wrong with flying higher than any other man had flown. You couldn't brag about it."[63]

  The first group of pilots had the roughest time. The U-2 was barely out of the test phase and was still plagued with engine flameout problems. In one incident, Bissell received a call that a U-2 flying over the Mississippi River had suffered a flameout. The engine had apparently been damaged as it was vibrating and could not be restarted. The pilot radioed he would land at Kirtland Air Force Base at Albuquerque, New Mexico. Bissell called the base commander at Kirtland and told him a U-2 would be landing in about fifteen minutes. He asked the commander to have the base air police at the runway when it landed. They should cover the plane with tarps to hide its configuration. A half hour later, Bissell received a call from Kirtland. The base commander reported that the plane had landed safely and that he was talking with the pilot in his office.[64] In another case, a U-2 flamed out and landed at the Palm Springs Airport. A C-124 transport and recovery crew took off within an hour to pick it up. The incident was reported in the local newspaper but attracted little attention.

  The first group also suffered a fatal crash. Wilbur Rose took off on a training flight when one of the pogos failed to fall out. He flew low over the field trying to shake it free. He misjudged, and the plane, heavy with fuel, stalled. Rose died in the crash.[65]

  The second group, which included Powers, went through the Ranch between May and August 1956. They suffered no crashes or washouts. Powers recalled that he was nervous before making his first high-altitude flight and forgot to retract the landing gear after takeoff. As he flew above California and Nevada, his first impression of the U-2 was disappointment — the plane was not capable of the altitude that had been promised. When time came to begin the descent, Powers started to lower the landing gear, only to realize it had been down the whole time. His impression improved considerably. He had broken the world altitude record with the gear down.[66]

  At the same time, a special group of pilots was undergoing training.

  President Eisenhower was worried about the possibility of an American citizen being killed or captured during an overflight. This would generate tremendous political problems. Eisenhower told CIA director Allen Dulles, "It would seem that you could be able to recruit some Russians or pilots of other nationalities." Eventually, one Polish and four Greek pilots were recruited. The Greek pilots underwent training at the Ranch, but all washed out. The Polish pilot was never allowed to fly the U-2.[67]

  The third group underwent training in late 1956. The group suffered two crashes, one fatal. In December, Bob Ericson was flying at 35,000 feet when his oxygen ran out. As he began to lose consciousness, the aircraft began to overspeed and go out of control. Ericson fought his way out of the cockpit and parachuted to a landing in Arizona. Less fortunate was Frank Grace. He took off on a night training mission, became disoriented, and flew into a telephone pole at the end of the runway. Grace died in the crash.[68]

  Training operations followed a pattern. The pilots arrived at Groom Lake on the Monday morning flight. They turned in their IDs, which gave their true names and described them as pilots with Lockheed, then assumed the cover names. Each pilot would make two or three U-2 flights per week.

  Then, on Friday afternoon, the pilots left the site to spend the weekend in Los Angeles.

  While at the Ranch, the pilots lived in trailers, four in each. Powers called "Watertown Strip," which was the pilots' name for the site, "one of those 'you can't get there from here' places." The population had grown from about 20, at the time of the first flight, to around 150 air force personnel, Lockheed maintenance crews, and CIA guards. A third hangar had been added, as had more trailers. The Ranch was still a remote desert airstrip.

  The growing numbers of U-2s were parked on the hard-packed dirt on the edge of the lake bed; there was no concrete apron. U-2 takeoffs and landings were made from the lake bed. The whole facility was temporary; it was never built to last.[69]

  Amusements were limited. There was no PX or Officers' Club. The mess hall, however, was likened to a first-class civilian cafeteria. The food was excellent and second helpings were available. The mess hall also had several pool tables. A sixteen-millimeter projector provided nightly movies. Given the isolation of the site, the pilots were forced to create their own entertainment. Alcohol was freely available and consumed in abundance. Marathon poker games were also organized by the pilots.

  The first group of pilots scrounged up gunpowder, woodshavings, and cigar tubes to build small rockets. They made a satisfying "woosh" when launched, but the fun ended when one nearly hit a C-131 transport in the landing pattern.[70]

  From time to time, official visitors would come to Groom Lake. In December 1955, Defense Secretary Charles Wilson was shown around the Skunk Works and the Ranch. Allen Dulles also visited the Ranch and met with the first group of pilots.

  The only "outsiders" allowed into Groom Lake were the C-124 transport crews, and they did not know where they were. The production U-2s were […] or Oildale, California, near Bakersfield. The factory was a tin-roofed warehouse called "Unit 80."

  During 1956 and 1957, the aircraft were completed, then disassembled, covered, and taken to a local airport, where they were loaded on the C-124s.

  It was important that no one know the Ranch's location, so the flights were made at night. The crew was instructed to fly to a point on the California-Nevada border, then contact "Sage Control." The radio voice would tell them not to acknowledge further transmissions. The C-124 would then be given new headings and altitudes. Soon the crew would be contacted by "Delta," who would tell them to start descending into the black desert night.

  The voice would then tell the transport's crew to lower their flaps and landing gear. Yet their maps showed no civilian or military airports in the area, only empty desert. Then the runway lights would come on, and Delta would clear them to land. Following the landing, the runway lights would be turned off and a "follow me" truck would direct them to a parking spot. The buildings were visible only as lights in the distance. A group of tight-lipped men with names like "Smith" would unload the U-2.[71]

  Once delivered to Groom Lake, the U-2s would be reassembled and test flown. The process would be reversed when the time came to send the U-2s to their overseas bases.

  OVERFLIGHTS BEGIN

  The need for intelligence on the Soviet Union had grown since the start of the U-2 program. The pace of Soviet nuclear testing was picking up. The Soviets had also staged mass flybys of Mya-4 and Tu-95 bombers. Estimates began to appear that the Soviets would soon have upwards of five hundred to eight hundred Mya-4s. So began the "bomber gap" controversy.

  The problem was that these estimates were based on fragmentary data; they were little better than guesses. There was no way to know.

  Eisenhower made two efforts — one
political, the other clandestine — to gain intelligence. At the July 1955 Geneva Summit, he made the "Open Skies" proposal. The United States and Soviets would be allowed to overfly each others' territory as a guard against surprise attack. Eisenhower also believed such an effort would be a step toward disarmament. The Soviets, relying on secrecy to hide their military strengths and weaknesses, rejected the proposal.[72]

  The other effort was the Genetrix reconnaissance balloon program. The plan, which had been in development since 1950, envisioned the launch of some twenty-five hundred Skyhook balloons, carrying camera gondolas from England, Norway, West Germany, and Turkey. The balloons would drift across the Soviet Union on the winter jet stream. The large number would cover nearly all of the Soviet land mass. The randomly drifting balloons could not cover specific targets, but this did not matter. The Soviet Union was a huge blank. Once clear of Soviet airspace, the gondolas would be cut free of the balloons by radio signals. As the gondolas descended by parachutes, they would be caught in midair by specially equipped C-119 transports.

  The Genetrix launches began on January 10, 1956. For the first two weeks, the loss rate of the balloons was acceptable and the Soviets made no protest. By late January and early February, however, the balloons were no longer making it through. Soviet air defenses were able to stop the high-flying intruders. On February 6, following a Soviet protest, Eisenhower ordered the balloon launches halted. In all, only 448 balloons were launched; of these, 44 gondolas were successfully recovered. These provided 13,813 photos covering 1,116,449 square miles of the USSR and China […] percent of their total land mass).[73] This daring and desperate at-the U-2's turn.

  By early April 1956, flight training of the first group of CIA pilots was completed and the new J57-31 engine had proven itself virtually immune to flameouts. The U-2s, pilots, and ground crews were sent to Lakenheath, England. The unusual looking plane soon attracted attention. The June 1, 1956, issue of Flight carried a report of a sighting over Lakenheath. It stated, "In the sky, it looks like the war-time Horsa glider. He believes it to have one jet engine and reports a high tailplane and unswept wings of high-aspect ratio."